HAMZA AL-KHATEEB AND THE "CHILDREN OF FREEDOM" PROTESTS
A week ago (June 3) people in Syria came out to protest after Friday prayers, as they have done since mid-March--more determined than ever to free themselves from a cruel and repressive regime. The June 3rd protests, among the largest yet, were called to honor the children who have died in the uprising–and so the day would have a special name, "Children of Freedom Friday." Its banners and slogans would hoist into the nation’s consciousness–and the world’s–the photo of a young martyr, Hamza al-Khateeb. Hamza’s status as a catalyzing symbol was almost immediately compared to that of the young men who who played that role in the Tunisian and Egyptian uprisings. But they were young adults. Hamza was only 13-years old. (1).
Child's drawing of Hamza al-Khateeb, posted to the "We Are All Hama Alkhateeb" Facebook page (as reproduced on the Al Jazeera English web site).
Despite the regime’s efforts to disrupt communication by shutting down the Internet and cellphone relays, the theme of the June 3rd protests echoed across the entire country. Even before the Internet was back up, footage had been smuggled out by couriers and posted on YouTube. By Saturday and Sunday a great deal of footage was appearing there and on the Facebook page of the Local Coordinating Committees of Syria (see The Lede, June 3rd and 4th, in Resources, for links to examples). A post on the LCCS Facebook page reported that on Saturday June 4th, thousands participated in the funerals of two children from the village of Salehiya, who had been killed on June 3rd "by the hands of Security forces in the Children of Freedom Friday" (2).
In Syria, pro-reform/pro-democracy demonstrations have been going on more or less continuously for nearly three months. Inspired by events in Tunisia and Egypt, Syrian activists had asked their reform-minded supporters to demonstrate on February 5th. In response, the Muslim Brotherhood (who wanting to upstage the moderate and secular activists) called for demonstrations a day earlier--on February 4th. But there wasn’t much interest in either of these attempts to incite a movement for change in Syria (3). What finally got people’s attention, more than a month later, was the brutal treatment of teenagers in the southern town of Dara’a, who were arrested for producing anti-government graffiti. Local people took to the streets demanding reforms and an end to the detested State of Emergency Law and soon protests spread throughout the country. Thus, it is fair to say that the Syria uprising was sparked by teenagers–and by President Bashar al-Assad’s (or his local enforcers) "over-the-top" response to the acts of young dissidents (4).
Perhaps the Assad regime could have avoided the transformation of peaceful rallies for reform into fully-fledged anti-Assad protests. From what I’ve read I’ve gotten the impression that in the early weeks of the uprising most demonstrators would have been satisfied with slow-but-steady steps towards genuine reform. Indeed, many people continued to believe that President Assad was at heart a reformer–though constrained by the hardliners (such as his brother Maher al-Assad) surrounding him. Assad kept "talking the talk" but even his lifting of the State of Emergency--a key demand of the demonstrators--turned out to be meaningless. At the same time the government’s crackdown was becoming more violent–until the security forces were mostly relying on a troops and tanks strategy. Using force to douse the pro-democracy movement wasn’t working–in the streets it was getting hotter. (5)
By late April there was a growing sense that Syria’s historic turning point was coming–and young people, including young teenagers, wanted to take part. So on April 29th Hamza al-Khateeb and his friends joined his parents and other adults from their village, who were going to Dara’a to participate in demonstrations and perhaps try to break the siege of Dara’a. They were intercepted by security forces and Hamza and his friend Thamer were detained. An encounter between security forces and protesters bringing food and water to the city turned violent when a large crowd of protesters began moving towards the city’s Western entrance. According to an eye witness 62 people were killed and more than a hundred injured. It is quite possible that Hamza was wounded during this incident. (6)
A month later, despite continuing protests, there were reports that the momentum was slowing. Just when the Syrian uprising needed a jolt to keep its resilient but weary protesters going for another round, two critical news items surfaced: a video so graphic that it turned a 13-year-old boy into an iconic symbol of the regime’s brutality; and a UNICEF report highlighting the deaths of children during weeks of protest.
The boy was Hamza al-Khatib, who had been detained on April 29th for taking part in an anti-government demonstration. About a month later the government released his body to his parents for burial. Although he had been shot, it was also apparent that he had been tortured and his body mutilated. The condition of the corpse was so shocking that the family allowed activists to make a videotape to record what had happened to him. Posted to YouTube, the tape elicited widespread outrage (7). A Facebook page dedicated to Hamza put out the call for massive protests on "Children of Freedom Friday." That’s how Hamza became the poster boy for the Syria revolt.
Hamza’s suffering was extreme but he is only one of dozens of child victims of the regime. Others have died, some shot by snipers, as security forces sought to disrupt street protests. ... On May 31st UNICEF had issued a expressing its concern and calling upon the Syrian government to investigate reports that children were being injured, detained, displaced and killed. This statement referred specifically to "video images of children who were arbitrarily detained and suffered torture or ill-treatment during detention, leading in some cases to death." It also expressed alarm over the reports it had received about at least 30 children who had been killed when live ammunition was fired at demonstrators. Finally, UNICEF reminded Syria that of its obligations under the Convention of the Rights of the Child, to which it was a party. According to a post on the LCCS Facebook page, as many as 72 children have died in protest-related violence or in government detention. This does not contradict the UNICEF report, which counted only those shot during protests and, in any case, is a minimal figure. (8)
On Wednesday (June 8) the body of Thamer al-Sahri, a 15-year-old who had been arrested with his friend Hamza, was returned to his parents. Again, the visual signs of his alleged torture (a missing eye, knocked out teeth, broken neck and leg, bullet holes) were documented on videotape, according to an Al Jazeera source inside the country (9). Like Hamza, his only offence was taking part in an anti-Assad demonstration. Another mutilated teenager, more fuel on the fire?
Today (June 10), protests have followed quickly on the heels of Friday prayers in towns and cities across Syria and early reports suggested that protests in Damascus were on a larger scale than previously (see "Breaking News articles in Resources). In the southern community of Busara al-Hariri today’s protests were centered on the fate of four children, who have been missing for a week (10).
The situation in Syria continues to escalate. It seems that the revolt has entered a new phase--with the defection of men from the security forces sent to crackdown on protesters in Jisr al-Shughur (a town close to the Turkish border). According to the government, "armed gangs" had ambushed and killed 120 members of the security forces, but activists say that the causalities were men who had refused to fire on civilians. The government, bent on retaliation, sent more troops and tanks to the area, where Maher al-Assad (the president’s brother) is said to be in command. This has sent whole families from the town fleeing across the border into Turkey. By evening Jisr al-Shughur was surrounded by troops and those civilians who remained in the town were taking up arms to defend it, but whether any defectors remain to help them is unclear. Other towns in the area have been shelled. (11)
Despite Turkey’s recent policy of reaching out the the Assad regime, its leaders have little real leverage. Prime Minister Erodogan has promised to keep the border open to Syrian refugees, now numbering more than 2400. So many women and children have left Jisr al-Shughur that it seems empty, but throughout the northwest there must be many children still in their homes, terrified as the Syrian military sweeps through their villages. (12)
What will be the outcome in Syria? Will the Assad regime survive or will it succomb? Will more civilians die or end up in refugee camps in Syria and Lebanon? How many more children will be injured or die before the situation is resolved (if, it is resolved)? How many children will suffer the trauma of losing parents, siblings, friends? What will be the long-lasting effects on Syria’s children of living in a conflict zone?
Parents and ChildrenIf you are a parent, you may ask (and it is legitimate to do so), why Syrian parents have been taking their young children to anti-government demonstrations that may turn ugly and violent. I don’t know what they are thinking, and so I may only speculate. But here are a few possibilities to consider.
The demonstrators have maintained that acting peacefully and, for the most part their response to the government crackdown has been incredibly restrained. Bringing young children along reinforces this message: we intend to remain non-violent, however much you provoke us. I think that the video of a children’s "mini-protest’ posted on The Lede supports this (13). The marching men who pass by may be their fathers and older brothers. In the background you can hear the ululations of women, who are probably their off-camera mothers and older sisters.
While many Syrians are fearful and apprehensive, to the point of seeking refuge in Syria and Lebanon or with relatives in parts of the country less affected by the upheaval, for others the protest experience has been galvanizing and transformative. For those who have lost their old fear of the government–fear that had inhibited and imprisoned them–there may be a new awareness of the dangers of the moment and what may be their fate if the regime survives. They know what happened in Hama in 1982 (where 10,000 is the low estimate of those massacred). In the present historical context, in a cultural setting where one’s destiny is in God’s hands and martyrs are revered for their sacrifice on behalf of the community.
In other words, what I’m suggesting is that activists and those who have taken to the streets do not want their children to grow up so afraid that they end up in another prison-house–one partly constructed out of their own fear of what might happen if they express dissent or engage in any form of rebellion. So perhaps parents have brought children to protests as a way to innoculate them against this kind of debilitating fearfulness. Read about the Syrian mother of a four-year old, who certainly wanted to protect her daughter. She articulates this desire for freedom very emphatically: "I don't want my girl to grow up to be like me--afraid! I now want to overthrow the regime" (14).
As the government crackdown has intensified, it seems that there have been fewer young children tagging alongside their parents. At the same time it have become more difficult for parents to keep older children and teenagers at home. Not too surprising, as teenagers are impulsive, prone to risk-taking. In Syria (as in Tunisia, Egypt, and in now in Libya), young people will be drawn into the historical moment by an ever-mounting sense of a great upheaval that they want to be a part of. Young people want to be "where it’s happening, dude." As older teens join young adults on the streets, younger teens will try to emulate them (15). In other words, parents may find it impossible to prevent teenagers from protesting. The fate of Hamza and other young victims of the Assad regime only serve to intensify the emotions of other young people.
Teaching About Human Rights Abuses
American children are exposed to so much gratuitous violence, so many fake depictions of mutilated bodies, that a dose of reality may serve as an antidote to the complacency that such exposure engenders (Bang! Bang! It’s just a video game!). But let me qualify this statement. In parts of the US, especially in the poor quarters of larger cities, American children see too much violence that is only too real and that, with the onset of summer, will occur with even greater frequency. These kids deal with meaningless violence (of some sort or other, not always lethal) nearly everyday. I’d say that they also need to know that kids in other places face violence, too–and that adults and young people have been working for peaceful change in some of those places.
So human rights and pain inflicted on those whose rights are abused are legitimate topics for discussion in American schools, school-age summer programs, and youth camps. What matters is the age of the students and their prior exposure to, or experiences with, actual violence. This means that teachers will approach the topic very differently and tailor their treatment to the social context of their students’ lives. In many instances this might mean doing more with words and less with images. Getting students to articulate their own experiences and make connections is important–but go easy, don’t throw out more than they can handle. (You also have to prepare yourself for those students who might laugh and tell you that torture is "cool.")
Next fall, when school opens, regardless of the outcome, the Arab Spring and events in Syria will still be in the news. I think that American children should not be shielded too much from what their peers are experiencing in conflict zones around the world. Hamza’s story will evoke empathy and greater understanding of events in Syria and why the Syrian protesters wanted so much to reform, then overthrow the government. This can be done without focusing too much on the details of how Hamza was tortured and mutilated.
Begin with the iconic photo of Hamza, whose round face and hint of a smile could be those of an American boy (he reminds me of other middle school boys on the cusp of puberty). Explain that Hamza was detained, mistreated, and died while in government custody. Explain that the Assad government has arrested and mistreated lots of people who didn’t like the way it was "doing business." Tell students about the Facebook page dedicated to Hamza’s memory. Show photos of the June 3rd "Children of Freedom" protests in which Hamza’s photo appears on protest banners and placards. ASK, why did people make these banners? What effect did they have? Then shift the focus to "What kind of boy was Hamza?" Share the story of how Hamza begged his parents for money to give to a poor family. Mention that, like many boys in this region, he kept pet pigeons and must have been fond of them (16). Ask, "How do you think Hamza would like his family and friends to remember him?" Move on to how we can work to protect the rights of children in our country and around the world.
ACTIVITIES
WATCH/READ: To introduce Hamza’s story watch the Channel 4 News video. Follow-up with the Atlantic Wire article or another short news item (preview to assess whether the information is appropriate given the age of your students).
BALLOON RELEASE: Honor Hamza and other children who have died or have been injured by releasing balloons with messages about peace and compassion. See the video of balloon release video posted on "We Are All Hamza Alkhateeb" on June 4th.
Remember Hamza’s generosity by DONATING to UNICEF or a reputable international children’s aid organization. Raising donation money could be a service learning project for a Girl Scout or Boy Scout troop or summer camp. Plan now to incorporate such a project into next year’s service program at your school or church.
READ/DISCUSS: After reading "Syria: Fear and Defiance in Homs" discuss the experience of the mother and young daughter. ASK: What would you do if you were faced with the same/similar set of circumstances? (This would be a good discussion to have in any parenting group that you might belong to.)
RESEARCH: Find out more about pigeon-keeping as a hobby in the Middle East. WATCH the video about Baghdad ... ASK: How did the pigeon hobbyist feel about his pigeons? Why did he find comfort in them during dark days in Baghdad? In WORLD HISTORY read the Aramco article and explore its many historical references (a great project for a student who fancies pigeons or has a cultural connection to this hobby).
READ about the Convention on the Rights of the Child or explore the document itself. FIND OUT why the United States has not ratified this document. ASK students to write persuasive essays about children’s rights or arguing the pros/cons of US ratification of the Convention. Suggest that cases like Hamza’s provide highly emotive supporting evidence. Encourage students to find more information and examples at the UNICEF and Human Rights Watch web sites. Point to the article about Jonathan Carey as another powerful example to use in their essays.
COMPARE/WRITE: After reading about Hamza and Jonathan, ask students to compare their lives and what happened to them while in the custody of "authorities." This brainstorming discussion could provide material for essays about the similarities and differences--as well as the issues raised--by these disturbing cases of abuse.
FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHERS: The Convention on the Rights of the Child is available online in Englihs, French, Spanish, and Arabic. Select text from this document for a translation exercise, followed by discussion (try using the language you are teaching, at least at the beginning of the conversation). Collaborate with a global studies teacher who might want to incorporate "children in conflict zones" or "children’s rights" as a topic of high interest to students.
RESEARCH: Search online for current and archived news about investigative reporting on conditions at facilities for developmentally-disabled, behaviorally-impaired children or those detained in the juvenile justice system. (Within the last couple of years I’ve read about abuses in a number of states, including state-run and private facilities.). Report back to your class or organization and discuss action, such as letter-writing to newspapers, state officials and legislators, petition campaigns.
RESOURCES
BREAKING NEWS: Al Jazeera English: Live Blog Syria: http://blogs.aljazeera.net/liveblog/syria
"Syrian Army Starts Crackdown in Northern Town." Al Jazeera English (June 10, 2011): http://english.aljazera.net/news/middleeast/2011/06/201161064328691559.html
Arsu, Sebnem and Liam Stack. "Fearful of a Government Assault, More Syrians Flee into Turkey." New York Times (June 9, 2011):
Arsu, Sebnem and Liam Stack. "Syrian Forces Advance on Restive Town Near Turkey." New York Times (June 10, 2011): http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/11/world/middleeast/11syria.html?_r=1&hp
- Check online for possible update of this story
- See photo of woman carrying mattress on head, with young boy beside her (snag for use in class, e.g. PowerPoint slide to elicit discussion).
Facebook: Local Coordinating Committees of Syria:http://www.facebook.com/LCCSy
- Posts in both Arabic and English; some include video of recent protests (go back to June 3 for "Children of Freedom Friday" protest footage)
Shaam News Network: http://shaam.org/
Hamza al-Khateeb and Child Victims in Syria
VIDEO: Channel 4 News (June , 2011; 2:55): http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iK9JznvZTbQ&feature=player_embedded
"Syrian Protesters Galvanized by Gruesome Video of Child’s Corpse." The Atlantic Wire (May 31, 2011): http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/05/syrian-protesters-galvanized-video-childs-corpse/38284/
- Overview recommended as suitable for the classroom
- Includes enlarged photo of Hamza from Facebook page (snag for PowerPoint)
- Detailed account of Hamza’s family, his life as a boy in his home village, his pigeons and other interests, his generosity
- Accounts of what happened in the vicinity of Dara’a on April 29th, based on sources from the region
- How the government tried to refute the evidence indicating that Hamza had been tortured; the brief detention of his father
"Outrage in Syria Over Killing of Teenage Boy." Al Jazeera English (May 28, 2011): http://english.aljazeera.net/video/middleeast/2011/05/2011528194514327168.html
Stack, Liam. "Video of Torture Boy’s Corpse Deepens Anger in Syria." New York Times (May 30, 2011): http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/31/world/middleeast/31syria.html?scp=1&sq=liam%20stack%20video%20tortured%20boy&st=cse
Stack, Liam. "Children Are Among Casualties of Syrian Military Raids After Demonstrations." New York Times (June 1, 2011): http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/02/world/middleeast/02syria.html?scp=3&sq=liam%20stack%20video%20tortured%20boy&st=cse
Facebook: We Are All Hamza Alkhateeb: http://www.facebook.com/hamza.alshaheeed
- Read the brief (not graphic) information about Hamza by clicking on "About"
- If you like , send an e-mail message: hamza.alshaheed@gmail.com
"Statement: UNICEF Alarmed about Report of Extreme Violence Against Children in Syria." UNICEF (May 31, 2011): http://www.unicef.org/media/media_58707.html
"Syria: Fear and Defiance in Homs." the New Yorker (June 1, 2011): http://www.newyorker/com/online/blogs/newsdesk/2011/06/syria-fear-and-defiance-in-homs
- Anonymous blogger’s account of a mother’s tale of the danger posed by to her four-year’s chanting of anti-Assad slogans at kindergarten
Protests on Children’s Freedom Friday
Mackey, Robert. "Syrians to March for Young Martyrs." The Lede: New York Times (June 2, 2011): http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/06/02/syrians-to-march-for-young-martyrs/?ref=middleeast
"Syrian Froces Kill at Least 34 Protesters at Anti-Government Protest." The Guardian (June 3, 2011): http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/jun/03/syrian-forces-kill-34-protesters
- Article about protests in Hama on June 3–with useful background information about the Hama Massacre in 1982.
Stack, Liam and Katherine Zoepf. "Mourning a Boy, Crowds in Syria Defy Crackdown." New York Times (June 4, 2011): http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/04/world/middleeast/04syria.html?scp=2&sq=liam%20stack%20video%20tortured%20boy&st=cse
Harris, Elizabeth A. "As Web Returns, Syrians Post More Video of Friday’s Protests and Clashes." The Lede: New York Times (June 4, 2011):
- See especial the last embedded video, which shows a group of young children demonstrating: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9orfJrzcU94&feature=player_embedded
- Earlier one shows men marching, with a few children (show part and ask viewers to look for the children and estimate their ages)
IMAGE: Children in Beirut Holding Vigil: http://www.facebook.com/hamza.alshaheeed#!/photo.php?fbid=205405062838067&set=pu.202038843174689&type=1&theater
Children’s Rights
UNICEF: http://www.unicef.org
"Convention on the Rights of the Child." UNICEF: http://www.unicef.org/crc/
- Briefly explains the purpose and contents of the convention, including the legal obligations of signatory nations
- Links to text of the convention in English, French, Spanish, and Arabic
See also UNICEF resources in section above (Hamza and Child Victims in Syria).
Human Rights Abuses in Syria
Human Rights Watch: Syria: http://www.hrw.org/middle-eastn-africa/syria
- Scroll down to CNN video of HRW researcher Nadim Houry talking about the 57-page report "We’ve Never Seen Such Horror": Crimes Against Humanity in Daraa (released on June 1)
- Link to article summarizing the report (with a link to the document): "Syria Crimes Against Humanity in Daraa" (http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2011/06/01/syria-crimes-against-humanity-daraa)
Black, Ian and Nidaa hassan. "Syrian Security Forces Accused of Crimes Against Humanity." The Guardian (June 1, 2011): http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/jun/01/syria-security-forces-crimes-humanity
- An overview of the HRW report with comments by other activists
- Mentions the shooting of an 11-year old girl at Hirak (near Dara’a) on May 31st
Pigeons and Middle Eastern History
VIDEO: "The Pigeon Fanciers of Baghdad." BBC News (2:20): http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7954499.stm
"The Pigeons of Anjar." Saudi Aramco World (November/December 1970): http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/197006/the.pigeons.of.anjar.htm
"Damascene Pigeons." URL: ttp://www.feathersite.com/Poultry/Pigeons/Damascene/BRKDamas.html
- Pictures of beautiful pigeons, a special breed named after a very ancient and special city in Syria.
"A Disabled Boy’s Death, and a System in Disarray." New York Times (June 5, 2011): http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/06/nyregion/boys-death-highlights-crisis-in-homes-for-disabled.html?ref=todayspaper
NOTES
1) See, for example, Outrage in Syria Over Killing of Teenage Boy." Al Jazeera English (May 28, 2011): http://english.aljazeera.net/video/middleeast/2011/05/2011528194514327168.html.
The "Children of Freedom Friday" was publicized on Facebook’s "We Are All Hamza" page (an allusion to the "We Are All Khaled Said" page of Egyptian democracy activists); for the Egyptian uprising and social media see earlier posts: The Social Media ‘Hook’ (February 4, 2011); Egypt: Resource Round-Up (February 9, 2011).
2) This appeared on June 4, 2011 (17 minutes ago, at 9:36 AM, Central Daylight Savings Time in US), as a post from Deir Ezzor. The children were Mohammad Saleh Alkattam (age 13) and Moaz Alrakad (age 16).
3) [to be added when I find the reference]
4) A family friend of the children involved said they were only 10 to 13 years old and imitating what they had seen on TV broadcasts of events in Tunisia and Egypt; see age Katherine Marshall, "Syria’s Silent Majority Will Determine Next Step as Protests Grow," The Guardian (April 15, 2011): http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/apr/15/syria-protests-silent-majority.
5) For excellent map and mid-May overview of the regime’s efforts to put down the revolt (with violence, arrests, detentions and torture), see Anthony Shadid, "Signs of Chaos in Syria’s Intense Crackdown," New York Times (May 12, 2011): http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/13/world/middleeast/13syria.html?scp=1&sq=shadid%20syria's%20government%20spreads%20fear&st=cse.
Also, Lix Sly, "At Least 32 Killed as Syrian Troops Open Fire," Washington Post (May 20, 2011): http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/syrian-troops-fire-on-protesters-at-least-3-dead/2011/05/20/AF4hUj7G_story.html.
6) The siege of Dara’a began on April 25th when President Assad ordered tanks and snipers to the area and also cut off the towns electricity and telephone lines. For events in Dara’a see article summarizing the Human Rights Watch report (in Resources).
7) Hugh Macleod and Annasofie Flamand, "Tortured and Killed," Al Jazeera English (May 31, 2011): see Resources.
8) See "UNICEF Calls on Syria to Investigate Reported Killings of Children" and the text of the statement (both in Resources).
9) Note that the Syrian government has not allowed foreign journalists to travel in Syria–verification of news smuggled out, posted on external media sites difficult or impossible. Hamza’s friend: "Syrians Decry ‘Torture’ of Teenage Protester." Al Jazeera English (June 9, 2011): http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2011/06/2011696563111657.html.
10) Benjamin Haarvey and Caroline Alexander, "Syrian Women, Chidlren Flee to Turksih Camps as Army Escalates Crackdown," Bloomberg (June 10, 2011): http://bloomberg.com/news/print/2011-06-10/syrian-women-children-flee-to-turkish-camps
11) Tensions increased in Idlib province, where Jisr al-Shugur is located, on June 4th; see Liam Stack,"Syrian Army Kills 38 in North, Reports Say," New York Times (June 5, 2011): http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/06/world/middleeast/06syria.html?scp=1&sq=liam%20stack%20syrian%20army%20kills%2038&st=cse; and "Syrian Town Braces for Military Assault," Al Jazeera English (June 8, 2011): http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2011/06/201167202822354710.html.
For more recent events see articles in Breaking New section of Resources. The harshness of the response to protests in and around Jisr al-Shughur probably reflects its notoriety as a center of the Muslim Brotherhood, where seventy died in a government crackdown in 1980 (a prelude to the Hama Massacre of 1982).
12) Gregg Carlstrom, "Thousands Enter Turkey to Escape Syria Unrest," Al Jazeera English (June 9, 2011): http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2011/06/201169131651223112.html. This article mention’s Turkey’s leverage but see also Nour Khaled in Ahram.
13) See Resources for the last video embedded in The Lede post by Elizabeth A. Harris (June 4, 2011).
14) In "Syria: Fear and Defiance in Homs" an anonymous but credible blogger tells the story of this four-year-old and her mother (in Resources).
15) It has been reported that Christian youths have joined Muslim peers on the streets of Qamshli in the northeast although their parents have stayed away from demonstrations.
16) Hugh Macleod and Annasofie Flamand, "Tortured and Killed," Al Jazeera English (May 31, 2011): see Resources.
17) For example, there is a YouTube video with a song about a bird that is very powerful because the bird’s imagined experience is so close to that of an imprisoned, suffering child–but the imagery of the video is drawn from the original documenting tape Hamza’s torture, making it too disturbing for most classroom settings.
